Writing an abridged research proposal- Part two

2.1   Methodology

This research paper is based on a qualitative research method. “Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the processes and the social and cultural contexts which shape various behavioural patterns” (Wagner, et al: 126). The use of a qualitative research method was chosen after consulting available research and the required need of the nature the analysis of each of the films that would be conducted. “Insights through structured in-depth data analysis that is mainly interpretative, subjective, impressionistic and diagnostic” (Wagner, et al: 126) was of primary influence when choosing the qualitative methodology.

At first a content analysis followed by a comparative analysis of the three films will establish the research. The content analysis will explore of the formula behind the development of black characters by analysing the content of the three films. Furthermore, the content analysis will identify political, social and economic shifts in South Africa that have provided the inspiration for the characterisation of black characters. The use of a comparative analysis will compare each of them in line with the research topic in order to spot any similarities or differences that may exist across three samples. The study of the protagonist and supporting characters will identify the representation of black characters in each of the films.

Data collection methods and techniques vary according to the requirements of the research project. This project incorporates a

multi-method research technique to investigate and analyse data. The multi-method research techniques utilised will comprise of a set of qualitative methods only.

Before choosing the data collection method a random sample was drawn from a list of South African films produced in the last eight years. Once the three films were chosen, investigator triangulation was considered in order to assist the understanding, assessing, and analysis of each of the texts. Using Gangsters Paradise: Jerusalema (Ziman & Matatu 2008) to illustrate the use of investigator triangulation, an exercise was conducted as follows; at the conceptualisation stage of the project, research was conducted to understand what material currently exists about this film that could answer the research topic. Second, space triangulation accessed the existence of “cross-cultural techniques” (Wagner, et al: 162). After which a need to fill in the gap of existing research became evident. Throughout the entire triangulation process precedence was given to ensuring that the data available for use was valid and reliable.

2.2   Literature Review

From oppression to democracy, South Africa’s history forms a significant part of the inspiration from which the media draws from. However a difference is spotted in the characterisation of South Africans, particularly black South Africans and how the roles they portray a changing society. South African films were narratives that expressed latest developments and current state of the country on the big screen. For instance the politically fuelled events of the Soweto Riots during apartheid were depicted in the film Sarafina!

(Roodt, Singh & Thompson 1992). More recently feature film

Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom (Chadwick & Singh 2013) based on the struggle of Nelson Mandela was released prior his death.

Jacqueline Maingard in her book, Trends in South African Documentary Film and Video: questions of identity and subjectivity supports the theory of the South African film industry constantly replicating on the big screen, past political events of significance. Considering the development of the South African film scene, Maingard (1995:658) believes that the growth of South Africa has followed a unique path and has used this to define its films around several variables such as “aesthetics and style, content, censorship, the states of emergency, funding and distribution, audiences, equipment and technical resources, edu-cation and training, networking, the film and broadcasting industry, and access to screening and broadcasting outlets both locally and internationally” (Maingard 1995: 658). These variables have contributed to the creation of characters and stories that film-makers share which have impacted on the roles designed for black characters and the impression these roles leave on society.

Maingard (1995) acknowledges the short hand representations of characters as the constructs that audiences are familiar with and have accepted, she has however ignored the social development of black South Africans in real-life and the effect of capitalism to create a classless society in which families of all races are able to prosper. This is what new stories tell, from films about crime and violence to story lines about family drama and romance, no longer are characters cast according to a particular role based on their race, but rather the relatability of characters to their audience.

In agreement to the mention of Third Cinema earlier in this post, Maingard’s (1995) view of film in South Africa and the themes and representations generated are in her opinion are showcased though a ‘third world lens'. “In the field of cinema one of the theories (and cultural practises) that has emerged ….is Third Cinema...Third Cinema 'recognises in (the anti-imperialist) struggle the most gigantic cultural, scientific, and artistic manifestation of our time ... the decolonisation of culture'. For them, Third Cinema was a militant, didactic cinema that opposed the cinema of Hollywood. Third Cinema was represented as a cinema that should forge a new aesthetic, a new cinematic language which would promote the cause of socialism by representing the experiences of colonialism and its more contemporary forms” (Maingard 1995: 661).

As much as the ideal casting of characters should not be affected by race, film is influenced by this as characters are often written and cast according to pre-determined roles based on character stereotypes that exist in the industry. For example white equals superior and black equals inferior in their roles. This is illustrated by Kershan Pancham (2012: 1) who in a critical discourse about Hollywood, blockbuster film Avatar (Cameron 2009), writes about the white messiah who is revered in film and although Pancham’s discourse is based on an American film can be applied to all film industries as a defining element for a character representation.  

The white versus black effect, perpetuates the representation of the trope of film casting and characterisation however at the same time a shift is occurring with the release of new titles as seen in The Jakes Are Missing (Figjam & Isaac 2015) for example. Here, an affluent family, residing in the suburbs is represented by black characters and not the traditional white casting.

Racial stereotypes are in society are reinforced through the media, but they are also challenged by emerging film-makers. For instance in Gangsters Paradise Jerusalema (Ziman &Matatu 2008)  the protagonist black character Lucky Kunene portrays a stereotypical, struggling black South African who resorts to crime and corruption to make a living for himself and his family. Intertwined into this, is a motif that was not expressed by films made in the past. Lucky has a desire to pursue higher education; he has hopes and dreams to live an honest life, from a young age. This is a stark contrast to the typical portrayal of black South Africans in film such as uneducated and non-aspiring. Unable to fulfil his dreams however, Lucky is forced to quit school, this speaks to the current economic state of the country and even in the 2000’s how all South Africans are struggling to access education.

Gangsters Paradise Jerusalema (Ziman &Matatu 2008) breaks ground in introducing to the audience a mixed-race relationship between Lucky and his white girlfriend Leah Friedlander. This was new level of exposure to South African audiences at the time, but a fresh approach to the development of the country’s rainbow nation. The accommodation of a mixed race relationship that is allowed to exist in post-apartheid South Africa, is met with strong opposition of a ‘free’ country as detective Blakkie Swart, a blatantly racist white policeman who easily expresses his hatred of the ‘new’ South Africa. Between Lucky and the detective, their characters represent lawfulness versus lawlessness, apartheid versus post-apartheid, black versus white and power versus inability in present day South Africa.

2.3   Research Assumptions

By the end of this study I hope to uncover the development of the characterisation of black South Africans in South African films. Furthermore, I hope to identify and discuss any affect and impact that the characterisation of black people in South African films has on society. Accompanying this will be the identification and understanding of the influence that apartheid and the political history of South Africa possess and how their roles contribute to casting or typecasting of black South Africans in South African films within a particular construct.

2.4   Findings and Discussion

I believe that my research will uncover the characterisation process undertaken by film-makers when writing roles set for black actors. Additionally I believe that this project will speak about the social impact that film has off-screen and the way in which characterisations of black people on the big screen is reflected in society today. This paper will also discuss the evolution of the South African film industry and the changes it has undergone since apartheid, to the types of stories told in contemporary South Africa. Lastly this paper will acknowledge the influence of politics on the South African film industry, not just in the stories it tells, but who are the people telling those stories, portraying those characters and representing South Africa as we have come to know it.

The literature review of this research paper will support the findings. As this is a qualitative based research project it is vital that the literature review covers all aspects of the research subject covering both favourable and opposing opinions and literature. A vital aspect to this project will be the elaboration of the discussion on the Third Cinema, mentioned earlier and how its alternative style and form has contributed to the South African film industry and the characterisation of black characters in South African films, particularly during the post-apartheid era.

2.5   Conclusions

The findings of this report have shown that there is a trace between the society and the influence of the characterisations of black South Africans in South African films. The three sample films chosen at random were the first pieces of evidence that illustrated the social and economic differences that currently exists between black people. Following this was the critical immersion into the films, their inspiration and the background of the writers whom have shared the need for their stories to be told. The three films are vastly different in their offering and each of the protagonists completely contrasts each other, this mimics the LSM difference that exists amongst black South Africans. Furthermore, the films also illustrate the changing times of black South Africans and the hardships and growth they have experienced since apartheid. From the violent, yet well educated background of Lucky, to the suburban life of the Jakes, a family rediscovering themselves in the new South Africa and finally the bond between township families and the extent to which a brother will go to protect his sister, regardless of race or money.

This study is the beginning of a paper that can lead into more in depth research overtime and with it is the longevity of its appeal as the South African film industry grows.

2.6   Limitations

Limitations experienced included limited access to archives, time restraints and limited literature available on the films being studied. This is largely due to the fact that these were not necessarily box office hits and their reviews were little in availability. There were also limits to using qualitative methods because traditional methods of research can become restrictive. Availability of funding to inject into the research was also a limitation. Interviews on the respective South African directors and producers were also limited. Lastly the lack of access to libraries posed as a limitation, as living abroad limits the material that I was able to access.

LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED

Chadwick, J (dir) & Singh, A (prod). 2013. Mandela: Long Walk to

Freedom. [Film]. Videovision Entertainment.

Figjam (dir) & Isaac, B (prod). 2015. The Jakes Are Missing. [Film]. Figjam Entertainment.

Maingard, J. 1995. Trends in South African Documentary Film and

Video:questions of identity and subjectivity. Journal of Southern African

Studies 21.4:657-667.

Pancham, K. 2012. Making space in the The Blue World for

“epistemologies of insight”: a critical discourse analysis of James

Cameron's Avatar. Cape Town: [sn].

Nkosi, E (dir). 2015. The Two Of Us. [Film]. Monarchy Group.

Roodt, D (dir), Singh, A (prod) & Thompson, D (prod). 1992. Sarafina!.

[Film]. British Broadcasting Corporation.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Media Research: Tutorial Letter 101/0/2016 for COM4802. Kwa Zulu Natal.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Honours Studies: Tutorial Letter 301/0/2016 for CMNHONE.Kwa Zulu Natal.

Wagner, C, Kawulich, B  & Garner, M. 2012. Doing Social Research: A global context. Berkshire, South African Edition: McGraw - Hill Higher Education.

Ziman, R (dir) & Matatu, T (prod). 2008. Gangster's Paradise: Jerusalema. [Film]. Muti Films.

Writing an abridged research proposal- Part one

1.1  Title

Exploring the characterisations of black South Africans in post-apartheid South African films: an analysis of Gangsters Paradise: Jerusalema, The Two Of Us and The Jakes Are Missing.

1.2  Problem statement

A systematic approach to analyse and explore the characterisations of black South Africans in post-apartheid South African films will be conducted in this research project. In support of the research an analysis of three films produced in the last eight years, Gangsters Paradise: Jerusalema (Ziman & Matatu 2008), The Two Of Us (Nkosi 2015) and The Jakes Are Missing (Figjam & Isaac 2015) will support the investigation.

The study conducted in this paper aims to identify the measurable outcome of the portrayal of black characters in films that have been produced in democratic South Africa. This study arose out of a need to understand the development of black characters in post-apartheid South African films. This was a theme that developed out of an initial study on the gangster genre of films that were produced in South Africa the early 2000’s. These films predominantly featured black South Africans in a criminal and violent light. Seeing that this was short hand for the gangster genre, regardless of race, it became evident that there was a gap in the study of contemporary black characters in movies produced post-apartheid regardless of genre.

This research will examine the characterisation of black South Africans in order to trace whether or not their roles are relevant to the time or if the writing of their characters are merely cast according to socially created stereotypes such as, violent, corrupt, dangerous, poor, and uneducated and so forth. This project will evaluate whether or not the stereotypes created in society influence the characterisation of black people in the South African film industry.

1.3 Background

The objective of this research project is to examine the composition of each of the protagonists as well as supporting characters in each of the films, in relation to the context of each films plot. In doing so, this paper will identify and analyse the characterisation of black actors in South African films produced in the last eight years. Through the use of a theoretical framework, this paper strives to understand factors such as social, cultural and political, all of which influences the ‘plot-culture’ of South African films and to understand the scripting of black characters to support said ‘culture’.

To understand where the stereotypes of black characters were initially created it is important that the political history of South Africa is studied. This is important in order to identify the background related to the casting of black characters that are present in South African films today. Furthermore, this paper will identify the social impact of the characterisation of black characters. For instance, the casting of black South Africans as criminals in the gangster genre or as affluent, suburban families in dramas and identifying whether or not the character representations are in fact a reflection of the South African lifestyle today or merely fabricated for the purpose of entertainment.  

Lastly, the research topic was chosen out of a need to analyse the South African film industry and its development over the last eight years, by tracing its evolution from the stereotypical apartheid motif to a contemporary style, telling all types of stories about black South Africans through film.

Acknowledging the application of the vibrancy of the Third Cinema, a term coined by filmmakers Octavio Getino and Fernando Solanas, in relation to the South African film industry, it voices the attempt of films such as Gangsters Paradise: Jerusalema (Ziman & Matatu 2008), The Two Of Us (Nkosi 2015) and The Jakes Are Missing (Figjam & Isaac 2015), particular to this project as revolutionary in their scope because of their stance to tell different tales. The application of the Third Cinema to the South African film industry applies two-fold. That is to the idea that South Africa is ‘third’ world, a developing country with a long road ahead and secondly as an opposition to the lucrative, monetary gains of the film industry that are typically associated with the mainstream film industry today.

Additionally, the chosen research topic highlights issues faced by black South Africans living in post-apartheid face. As well as the vast economic and education gap that exists amongst the majority race. The application of the Third Cinema is echoed by scholar Poobendren Govender (2011), who writes about one of the chosen texts Gangsters Paradise: Jerusalema (Ziman & Matatu 2008), which “offers an intricate insight into post-liberation South Africa and the direction of the country, causes of crime, the problems of capitalism and contradictions within the ‘South African Dream” (Govender 2011:80). This briefly touches on the lack of fear by film-makers to tell real-stories about black South Africans who are living in post-apartheid South Africa.

1.4  Purpose

The purpose of this study is to identify and analyse the measurable outcome of the characterisation of black characters in films that have been produced in a democratic South Africa. In the past South African film industry was known to produce stories about the political trends of South Africa. The political story lines were used as a tool to share stories of the fight against oppression and to communicate to the world the state of the country. In recent years films such as Gangsters Paradise: Jerusalema (Ziman & Matatu 2008), The Two Of Us (Nkosi 2015) and The Jakes Are Missing (Figjam & Isaac 2015) are samples that portray contemporary black characters in South African films. These films represent a small sample of films that tell the story of the life of black South Africans living in South Africa in the 2000’s. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to identify and analyse the changes in the representation of black characters and the importance of the role of South African films to share with audiences a sense of reality about the changing South African society.

1.5 Significance

This research paper will identify the characterisation of black people in South African films. This is important because it can help to understand the trends of the South African film industry, post-apartheid. The importance of focusing of black characters in particular is drawn from the uprising of black South Africans from oppression to democracy. By using film and its attributed influence we can gauge the growth and development of black people in the Republic of South Africa based on their representation.

If a study such as this is not conducted, the footprint of the South African film industry will continue to be ignored. As society today is significantly influenced by film and the media in its various forms, it is vital that its communication even for the means of entertainment is studied, acknowledged and appreciated for its value as well as its influence on society. This study is particularly important to communication studies scholars as the film industry and the representation of race through film needs to be considered as it is a reflection of the development of the nation.

LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED

Govender, P. 2011. Exploring the South African gangster film genre prior and post liberation: a study of Mapantsula, Hijack Stories and Jerusalema. Master’s dissertation. Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal.

Figjam (dir) & Isaac, B (prod). 2015. The Jakes Are Missing. [Film]. Figjam Entertainment.

Nkosi, E (dir). 2015. The Two Of Us. [Film]. Monarchy Group.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Media Research: Tutorial Letter 101/0/2016 for COM4802. Kwa Zulu Natal.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Honours Studies: Tutorial Letter 301/0/2016 for CMNHONE.Kwa Zulu Natal.

Ziman, R (dir) & Matatu, T (prod). 2008. Gangster's Paradise: Jerusalema. [Film]. Muti Films.

Public service broadcasting now and in the future-audience attitudes: A critique

The title of the project is deliberate and clear. It states the projects purpose to understand the current state of public service broadcasting for the BBC as expressed by audience attitudes and feedback as well as projected changes and growth for public service broadcasters in the future. The executive summary at the start of the project is extremely detailed and provides a structured framework for what the reader can expect as the report unfolds. Between the executive summary and the introduction there is a large account of repetition in reporting. The report however does illustrate a detailed view of the research phases, including all the factors that were considered for sampling (Human Capital 2008:18)

The project (Human Capital 2008) also firmly keeps in mind the client the BBC in their reporting. The statement of the problem reads successfully in addressing the intention of the paper with public service broadcasting at the forefront and the BBC at consistent reference. The project (Human Capital 2008) lists its reasons for conducting the research categorically according the following headings; attitudes to public service broadcasting, delivery of public service broadcasting, attitudes to plurality and attitudes to sources of funding.

This project surveys audiences based on a research topic more so than a research question. The research topic is focused on the present and future state of public service broadcasting based on audience attitudes, delivery on public service broadcasting, attitudes to plurality and attitudes to sources of funding (Human Capital 2008). There is indeed more than one aspect that affects an audience’s attitude. From the onset the research analysed and interpreted data based on a broad spectrum, for instance participants without restriction talked about the role of broadcasting in their daily life. This was followed by the mission and distinctiveness of programming as well as different programming genres (Human Capital 2008: 23). Ultimately researchers uncovered the role of broadcasting according to three major roles “Broadcasting as a source of information, as a source of learning and as a source of entertainment” (Human Capital 2008:23). The research topic then analysed the delivery of public service broadcasting to the public (Human Capital 2008: 36). It was found that the BBC was thought of as an “authority figure” (Human Capital 2008:36) in public service broadcasting but was perceived in both a positive and negative light (Human Capital 2008:36).

Attitudes to plurality, perhaps one of the more research saturated categories in this project clearly states the leg work that was put in to gather data. The acknowledgment of the importance of plurality (Human Capital 2008:43) as well as alternatives such as scheduling and programming to achieve audience satisfaction (Human Capital 2008:48) were investigated. A minority of participants commented on the commercialisation of mainstream content and programming over public service broadcast stations (Human Capital 2008:55).

Which brings us to attitudes to sources of funding (Human Capital 2008:58). This chapter focuses mostly on the future of public service broadcasting. The ideas posed (Human Capital 2008:55) as possible options to source funding from the audience were not received in favour, with participants objecting to proposed increases and sources for funding. Some comments included “Taxes should be paying for better health and education

Female – Manchester” (Human Capital 2008:59). On the other hand another participant stated “Unaffected BBC is important to me. If you have extra stuff, you have to pay for it somehow. So a higher Licence Fee would be a way of collecting it somehow Female – Tiverton” (Human Capital 2008:60). Illustrating that there in an understanding for the need of funding but there exists retaliation from the audience who does not want to be liable for any monetary increases. This report is important to the field of media and communications as this is a sector that is still growing and is need of understanding therefore the findings in this report can be helpful. However, with a focus solely on the BBC this report limits its application to public broadcasters around the world for instance in developing countries where public broadcasters are still young in its emergence. Other limitations to the use of this report elsewhere is in countries where English is not the first language, resulting in these public service providers being unable to utilise the data generated as it is not applicable or relatable to their audiences. It is most likely that is report can be published in a minor journal or a conference paper that serves the interest of the sample set and institution at hand.

This report shows no evidence of prior research and is written to address the viewpoints of audience attitude as well as the interpretation of the results generated from the findings of the research conducted. There is no literature review component to this report.

The theoretical framework relies on quantitative data providing a comprehensive descriptive explanation as well as a scientific interpretation and representation of facts and figures.

The sampling of the report was fitting in its undertaking considering the time frame and budget awarded to Human Capital. The research comprised six deliberative workshops which were four hours long per session and a total of 126 participants were involved, this included participants from Carmarthen, Coventry, Edinburgh, London, Manchester and Tiverton over a month long period. Human capital (2008:3). A quantitative survey of 4,577 respondents was carried out in person and online with participants over 16 years of age (Human Capital 2008:6). Results of the report are presented by a range of tabulated data and graphs which clearly presented statistics and findings.

The concluding points are a summarisation of the research results for each heading and follows a chronological order in bullet point form. No new information is introduced and it does not state any recommendations for future research.

LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED

Human Capital. 2008. Public service broadcasting now and in the future-audience attitudes. A report plus appendix by Human Capital. http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/aboutthebbc/future/pdf/now_future.pdf Accessed 4 August 2016. 

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Media Research: Tutorial Letter 101/0/2016 for COM4802. Kwa Zulu Natal.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Honours Studies: Tutorial Letter 301/0/2016 for CMNHONE.Kwa Zulu Natal.

Research techniques and their FOCI and purpose

Research techniques that can be used to study media institutions and media audiences The study of media institutions and audiences are studied by Stokes (2003) and  Mytton (2007) respectively with some techniques over lapping each other. Research techniques used to study media institutions are largely quantitative. Stokes (2003) lists the following techniques as useful in the study and analysis of media institutions: Archive research- is the use of original data to carry out analysis on a research topic. (Stokes 2003:109) Archive reserves store hordes of information that help in understanding the history and background of a given topic. Archives these days can be found on the ground at locations such as libraries or public offices as well as online. The use of archive research particularly in the study of media institutions is beneficial in tracing the timeline, development and growth of media institutions such as newspapers, radio, television the internet and so on (Stokes 2003:110). Stokes (2003:113) outlines the stages in archive research as a methodological process from start to finish. Interviews- this technique uses people as its primary means to source information (Stokes 2003:114). Interviewing a candidate who is an expert on media institutions for example can provide valuable, resourceful information. Interview groups can be large or small depending on the scale of research and the institution being studied. An effective method to administer interviews as stated by Stokes (2003:117) is via e-mail as it is an efficient, time-saving method. Participant observation- This technique includes the observation of what goes on at an institution and allows a researcher to experience firsthand situations that other methods merely report about. Participant observation is usually carried out over several months. A barrier to entry however is that not many media institutions will allow access to a researcher to observe on goings as they unfold (Stokes 2003:122). To be fully equipped to handle participant observation a thorough understanding of the institution must be obtained. Permission from all levels must also be obtained in order to ensure that both the institution and researcher are protected at all times (Stokes 2003:123). Participant observation requires an active engagement with the environment and requires extensive note taking and capturing of the experiences. This will ensure that during the analysis phase, a true reflection of the industry is reported whilst minimising any room for error or mistakes (Stokes 2003:123). Oral history- uses the skills of interviewing to help a subject recall the past (Stokes 2003:124). Stokes (2003:125) advises that a researcher must be well prepared before embarking on oral history interviews. Mytton (2007) divides up research techniques to study media audiences into quantitative research methods and qualitative research methods. Quantitative research methods include: Sampling- Choosing a sample for media audiences requires an appropriate sample size that will best accesses the environment and eliminates the possibility of skewed results. When choosing a sample for accessing media audiences it is vital that the researcher recognise the target for the media they will be working with. This ensures reliability in the results (Mytton 2007:24). Mytton (2007:25) insists that the sample must remain free of bias and must be completely reliable. Other factors to consider about sampling include the cost of sampling, resources and time frame (Mytton 2007:44). Questionnaires- The first step in ensuring that the data generated from a questionnaire is reliable is to design a sound-proof questionnaire. “Asking questions is one of the crucial basic skills of all opinion and market research, including audience and media research” (Mytton 2007:46). Questionnaires surveying media audiences should incite descriptive answers. (Mytton 2007:47) writes that the type of questions that are asked to the audience and they way in which they are asked ultimately affect the results (Mytton 2007:48). According to Mytton (2007:56), there are various times of questions which can be put into nine broad categories. These categories are “open-ended or verbal questions, list questions, category questions, ranking questions, scale questions, quantity questions, grid questions, two choice questions and probing questions” (Mytton 2007:56). Questionnaires must also be administered with sensitivity and must not offend the audience or a participant. Pilot testing- This phase of the research process requires taking the questionnaire on the road, with a small test conducted amongst a small scale sample set. However the sample set must reflect varied types of respondents. Interviewing- One the pilot testing is successful, the interviewing process begins. During this phase it is vital that the interviewer maintain an ethical, professional code of conduct whilst ensuring they convey an approachable attitude to the media audiences in question. After the interviewing is complete, the questionnaires are collected and the data consolidates for analysis. Other techniques used to study media audiences as stated by Mytton (2007:88) include self completion dairies, television and radio audience meters, survey research and opinion and reaction. Qualitative research methods for media audiences include focus groups, interviews, participant observation, desk research, listeners’ viewers’ and readers’ letters, phone calls and other personal communication from the audience and readership research (Mytton 2007:125). These qualitative research methods deal with media audiences by “trying to discover or understand human attributes, attitudes or behaviour in a more exploratory or interpretative way” (Mytton 2007:125). The use of qualitative techniques adds a story to research conducted about media audiences and it is the ability of a researcher to be able to analyse and interpret the gathered data. Studying media audiences in particular requires a level of in depth connection  and interaction which is what methods such as focus groups, interviews, participant observation can capture. The different foci and purposes of the research techniques when studying media institutions as opposed to studying media audiences The focus of research techniques in the study of media institutions is focuses largely on data that generates figures and data in volumes. The research techniques as described by Stokes (2003) illustrate the variety of approaches that can be used on the study of media institutions each of which have the ability to be conducted independently from each other. The focus of research techniques regarding media audiences on the other hand follow a more linear approach in the way research is conducted. From the initial setting of the questionnaire to its administration.  The data gathered here is also focused on facts and interaction over figures. The focus of research techniques about media audiences is to understand behavioural and psychological influences on audiences. This emotional connection is a stark contrast to the research methods used for analysing media institutions, a sector that is largely profit driven and power hungry. With that being said, the study of both media institutions and media audiences coexist in the understanding of how media institutions can better equip themselves to address the needs of the media audience. A researchers understanding of both institutions and audiences in media and cultural studies has to be a compulsory requirement in their research.  LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED Mytton, G. 2007. Handbook on radio and television audience research. (Web edition). Paris: UNICEF abd UNESCO. Stokes, J. 2003. How to do media and cultural studies research. London: Sage. University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Media Research: Tutorial Letter 101/0/2016 for COM4802. Kwa Zulu Natal. University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Honours Studies: Tutorial Letter 301/0/2016 for CMNHONE.Kwa Zulu Natal.

Studying media institutions and media audiences

The purpose of studying media institutions

Media institutions are either private or public entities that seek to create, distribute and spread media products to audiences through their chosen media channel/s. The study of media institutions aids the understanding of the competition that exists amongst media institutions and their fight to to dominate the public sphere. By studying media institutions such as companies or organisations (Stokes 2003:98) researchers are able to gauge the influence power and possibly control of the media houses, particularly those more mainstream and dominant in the industry.

Additionally media institutions are profit drive. They invest in the media as a commodity, by studying media institutions more closely one can analyse the influence and effect that that profit gains has on media products and audiences. Government has also been known to form part of and influence the media institutions as it is often plays the role of a legal entity that handles regulation as well as is supposed to act in the interest of public protection. An understanding of the governments around the world and the power they exert over the media illustrates the differences that exist in societies as well as the percentage of media that is being share around the globe as a true reflection of those broadcasting.

The purpose of studying media audiences

An audience determines a society and the media is indeed an influential tool over them however it is only influential if it is accepted by the audience it is addressing. Therefore to study media audiences is to understand the needs and wants of active consumers of the media. The 21^st century audience is an interactive one, particularly with tools such as the World Wide Web and social media available at their fingertips. Audiences are now able to engage with their choice of media directly and personally. They are also more prone to airing their disappointments or discontent of a media thus rendering a product unworthy or uninteresting just as quickly as they can boost its popularity. The media is influential but is largely influenced by what its audience dictates as they decide what is relevant and the rate at which a fad can die off. By studying audiences, media institutions are able to stay on trend and possibly ahead.

Audiences vary according to different demographics such as income, gender, age, language and so forth therefore the study of media audiences allows institution to target programming, advertising, content and so on towards their intended audience and avoid interacting with an irrelevant audience, ultimately losing media institutions time and money. By studying the needs of an audience based on their background, media institutions are better equipped to speak to their audiences. 

LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED

Stokes, J. 2003. How to do media and cultural studies research. London: Sage.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Media Research: Tutorial Letter 101/0/2016 for COM4802. Kwa Zulu Natal.

University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2016. Honours Studies: Tutorial Letter 301/0/2016 for CMNHONE.Kwa Zulu Natal.